Wright, R. W. & Karp, Grace Goc (2006). The effect of four instructional formats on aerobic fitness of junior high school students. The Physical Educator, 63(3). p. 143.
Abstract
Providing a fun, engaging variety of activities will increase aerobic fitness in jr. highs
Introduction
Schools need to improve cardiorespiratory endurance, but how?
Adult habits and attitudes begin during juvenile years
Unfit/obese leads to hypers, orthopedic, psychological problems
Fitness levels decline with age (less time for play)
Studies show the increase in sedentary lifestyle with age
Fun is a main reason for continued involvement
Learning styles are important considerations for educators
Encourage activity in youth through enjoyment, efficacy, and support
Ego-oriented students will want to be the fastest or push themselves the furthest
Drawback: Novelty wears off, activities become old and dull
Gains in aerobic fitness take 10-12 weeks
Instructional format must appeal to ego/task driven and be fun, interesting, and engaging
Methodology
Participants- 144 suburban junior high students
Instrumentation- timed 2400 meter run
Procedure- begin with practice run, all have same warm-up
Control Group runs at own pace, 15 minutes
Teach to the Test Group runs own pace, no time limit
Choice Group is given lessons on aerobic fitness, present activities 15-20 minutes
Variable Activity Group is given training exercises
Data Collection- Pre/post test times recorded
Results- Varying activity group has greatest average increase
Discussion- Interesting activities yield better results, girls improve better than boys
Conclusion
Activities designed to be fun yet productive have greatest improvement on aerobic fitness
President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Research Digest, Sept. 2003. Youth Resistance Training.
Introduction
Youths should be encouraged to practice resistance training
The idea is not as controversial as once thought
Uses free weights, machines, elastics, balls, to enhance muscle size, function,
performance
Not competitive body building
Trainability of Youth
Once believed training induced strength gains pre-puberty were ineffective
Higher training volumes with longer periods will produce results
Mechanisms of Strength Gain
Neural adaptations take the place of androgens in muscle hypertrophy
Changes in muscle size may not be in relation to puberty
Benefits of Youth Resistance Training
Increase muscle strength/power / resistance to injury
Increase local muscular endurance/ bone mineral density / cardiorespiratory fitness
Improve blood lipid profile / body composition / motor performance skills
Enhance sports performance / mental health and well-being
Stimulate positive attitude toward lifetime physical activity
Health-related Benefits
Results are not well documented but under proper supervision, will be positive
Will not stunt the growth of the body
Proper exercise, nutrition, activity will have positive effect
Prevents obesity, Good for psychosocial health
Motor Skills and Sports Performance
Sports with strength & power components need strong, powerful players
Induce improvements in non-power aspects (velocity, contraction)
Injury Reduction
Injuries increase due to lacking preparation
Enhance musculoskeletal strength, joint balance, prevent injuries
Risks and Concerns
Improper lifting and techniques can damage growth plates
Should only be done with certified supervision
Youth Resistance Training Guidelines
Adapt program to individual developmental level
Qualified professional supervision only
Start gradually, slowly increase load
Adherence to sound training principles is critical
Proper technique taught and enforced
Emphasize intrinsic enjoyment
Incorporate variety into training program
Consider multiple goals
Listen to children and teach the to listen to their bodies
Stewart, A., Elliot, S., Boyce, B. A. & Block, M. E. (2005). Effective teaching practices during physical fitness testing. JOPERD, 76(1). p. 21
General Guidelines for Fitness Testing
Reward Improvement- Encourage achievement and progress/effort
Tests are based on genetic ability, not able to be achieved by all when expected
Link the Curriculum to Assessments- uses the class to improve scores through activities
encouraging cardio, muscle strength, endurance, flexibility, composition
Incorporate testing into overall curriculum
Be Flexible- No need to rush into testing and take away from an activity
Carefully assign students to groups to optimize space and time
Allow students opportunities to make choices (privacy, minor accommodations)
Empathy- Accommodate the unfit with common sense
Demonstrate, but don’t show off
Stay current on any test changes that would affect testing procedure
Tips for Administering Specific Tests
Mile Run- Play music, watch weather, consider the time of day, respect privacy, use
PACER for aerobic capacity
Curl-ups- Give many tries, administer to easily observe, partner according to ability and
social concern, provide fun testing environment, allow private testing
Pull-ups- Pay attention to testing environment, consider demographics and abilities, have
equipment that fits students’ needs, keep not testing students active, allow a warm up, allow for practice or retest
Alternative Test
Modified pull-up
Flex Arm-hang
Back-saver sit and reach
Make sure measuring device is out of student view
Keep consistency throughout the year
Keep everyone active
Masterson, C, & Walkuski, J. J. (2004). Critical elements and cues. Strategies, [Novemeber/December]. p. 35.
NASPE & CIAR’s Fitnessgram has established health-related fitness education and assessment
Fitness testing should be used as an assessment to promote a healthy lifestyle
Difficult to find ways to teach the testing protocol
Testing is meaningful only if linked to total curriculum
Teachers should be knowledgeable on test elements and incorporate fitness activities into plans
Effective teaching skills have clear objectives and activities linked to assessment
FITNESSGRAM provides assessment tools to evaluate components of health-related fitness
Practice testing is necessary to determine reliable assessment
Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER)
20-meter progressive shuttle run recommended over mile run
Use sound cues to pace running, lap time decreasing
90 Degree Push up Test
Recommended over pull ups
Up/Down on sound cues
Curl Up Test
Curl ups done to sound cues
Markings indicate where body should move to
Trunk Lift
Assessment of abdominal flexibility and lower back strength
SLOW stretch
Back Saver Sit and Reach
Flexibility of the hamstrings
Slow stretch held
Important for students to practice protocols for FITNESSGRAM assessments
Irwin, C., Symons, C. & Kerr, D. (2003). The dilemmas of obesity: How can physical educators help? JOPERD, 74(6). p. 33
Introduction
Media portrayal of physical educators is not favorable
Society as a whole views obese negatively
Physical Health Dilemma
2/3 of Americans are overweight
Some information comes from BMI
Obesity has its roots in childhood, then are often obese as adults
Psychological Health Dilemma
Mental & emotional damage also possible from excess weight
Again, media doesn’t help
Workplaces seek “normal weighted” productive individuals
Cornell studies show +BMI women earn about 7% less than coworkers
Employers are not looking for overweight physical educators
Obese struggle with healthcare- physicians often uncomfortable treating, Med students
have more negative attitude toward heavier patients, Nurses say that patient noncompliance is a reason for inability to lose weight
Negative reactions lead to obese avoiding healthcare professionals, women avoid other
necessary examinations
Negative perceptions of overweight students in school increase with age
The esteem of obese children drops with age and weight gain
Overweight students are less likely to or desire to engage in sexual activity (GOOD!)
How Can Physical Educators Help?
Be compassionate and understanding
Make necessary modifications, be aware of difficulties outside of class
Obese aren’t comfortable in typical physical education setting
More wellness information should be incorporated into curriculum
Physical Fitness information should be conveyed philosophically, not competitively
Lifelong fitness activities should be highlighted
Integrate adventure/outdoors activities (more likely later in life)
Fat & Fit- focus on cardio, flexibility, strength and endurance
Evaluations in P.E. should be individualized
Alternatives should be available to those uncomfortable in fitness testing
Host a class specifically for obese and overweight
Model appropriate behaviors and attitudes
Do not allow fat/obese jokes, do not condone such behavior
FITNESSGRAM: Appropriate and Inappropriate Uses for Physical Education (position of the FITNESSGRAM Scientific Advisory Board
Principle of FITNESSGRAM is to promote lifelong physical activity
HELP- Health, Everyone, Lifetime, Personal
Appropriate Uses for FITNESSGRAM
Personal testing to help students evaluate fitness
Institutional testing to allow teachers to view group data
Personal best testing to allow for privately determined performance levels
Teaching criteria for health standards
Help to track fitness overtime
Inappropriate Uses for FITNESSGRAM
Evaluating in physical education
Evaluating teacher effectiveness
Evaluating overall physical education quality
Additional Considerations with FITNESSGRAM
Privacy must be a priority with results
Self-efficacy
PACER Test- aerobic capacity, progressive intensity, grades K-3
BMI- weight (kg)/height (m)2
Convert pounds to kilograms- LBS x 2.2 = kg
Convert height in inches to meters- inches x .0254 (square it)
Divide weight in kg by height in m to get BMI
Curl-up- do as many as possible at the specified pace, max of 75
90 Degree Pushup- rhythmic pace 20per minute
Shoulder Stretch- Touch fingertips behind the back over the shoulders and under the elbows
Trunk Lift- use the back to lift torso off floor
Aerobic Capacity
Acceptable levels reduce high blood pressure, heart disease, obesity, diabetes, cancers
Fitness terms include cardiovascular, cardiorespiratory fitness/endurance, aerobic fitness,
physical working capacity
Body Composition
Methods for measuring include underwater weighing, bioelectrical impedance, skinfold
measures, BMI
Portable Bioelectric Impedance Analyzer- similar to a scale with handgrips
Muscular Strength, Endurance, Flexibility
Importance of musculoskeletal system
Specificity of training effects area directly
Upperbody/trunk focused because of activities in daily life, posture
